Recent Updates
Dates reflect substantive content updates recorded in article frontmatter.
- Anoscopy
Direct examination of the anal canal and lowest rectum using a short illuminated instrument.
- Causes & Risk Factors
How normal hemorrhoidal cushions become symptomatic and how bowel habit, pregnancy, aging, and other factors contribute.
- Conservative Treatment
Fiber, fluids, bowel-habit changes, short-term symptom relief, and reassessment for hemorrhoids.
- Diagnosis & Examination
History, inspection, digital rectal examination, anoscopy, colon evaluation, and differential diagnosis for hemorrhoids.
- Goligher Classification
Four grades describing the degree and reducibility of internal hemorrhoid prolapse.
- Hemorrhoidal Artery Ligation
Nonexcisional operation that ties arterial branches supplying internal hemorrhoids, sometimes with mucopexy.
- Hemorrhoidectomy
Surgical excision of symptomatic internal, external, or combined hemorrhoidal tissue.
- Hemorrhoids
A plain-English and clinical overview of hemorrhoids, symptoms, assessment, and treatment.
- Injection Sclerotherapy
Office treatment that injects a sclerosant into selected internal hemorrhoidal tissue.
- Internal and External Hemorrhoids
Hemorrhoidal tissue above and below the dentate line, with different symptom patterns and treatment considerations.
- Office Procedures
Rubber band ligation, sclerotherapy, infrared coagulation, selection, recurrence, pain, and complications.
- Recovery & Prevention
Pain, bowel movements, activity, expected bleeding, warning signs, recurrence, and follow-up after hemorrhoid treatment.
- Rectal Bleeding
Blood passed from the anus, with causes ranging from minor anorectal conditions to serious bowel disease.
- Rubber Band Ligation
Office treatment that places a small band around selected internal hemorrhoidal tissue.
- Stapled Hemorrhoidopexy
Operation that lifts prolapsing internal hemorrhoidal tissue using a circular stapled mucosal resection.
- Surgical Treatment
Excisional hemorrhoidectomy, stapled hemorrhoidopexy, hemorrhoidal artery ligation, indications, and tradeoffs.
- Symptoms & Grading
Bleeding, prolapse, itching, discomfort, thrombosis, and Goligher grading in hemorrhoidal disease.
- Causes & Risk Factors
What is known about immune biology, genetic susceptibility, and environmental associations in multiple sclerosis.
- Clinically Isolated Syndrome
A first clinical episode compatible with inflammatory demyelination that may or may not meet criteria for multiple sclerosis.
- Diagnosis & MRI
How clinical context, MRI, cerebrospinal fluid, optic nerve testing, and the McDonald criteria support an MS diagnosis.
- Disease Courses
Relapsing-remitting, secondary progressive, and primary progressive patterns in multiple sclerosis.
- Disease-Modifying Therapy
Long-term treatment intended to reduce new inflammatory activity and future injury in multiple sclerosis.
- Headache
Head pain considered by pattern, associated symptoms, and clinical context.
- Living With Multiple Sclerosis
Practical planning for fatigue, heat, activity, work, cognition, mental health, preventive care, and follow-up in MS.
- McDonald Criteria
Specialist diagnostic criteria that organize clinical, imaging, cerebrospinal fluid, and optic nerve evidence for multiple sclerosis.
- MRI
Magnetic resonance imaging of brain tissue and other structural findings.
- Multiple Sclerosis
A plain-English and clinical overview of multiple sclerosis, diagnosis, disease courses, and treatment.
- Multiple Sclerosis Relapse
A new episode of inflammatory neurologic dysfunction distinguished from pseudo-relapse, progression, and emergencies.
- Oligoclonal Bands
Cerebrospinal fluid evidence of intrathecal immunoglobulin production used in selected neurologic evaluations.
- Optic Neuritis
Inflammation of the optic nerve causing subacute visual loss, color desaturation, and sometimes pain with eye movement.
- Relapses & Recovery
How clinicians distinguish an MS relapse from pseudo-relapse, progression, and other urgent neurologic conditions.
- Symptoms
Common multiple sclerosis symptoms, localization patterns, and warning signs that need urgent assessment.
- Treatment
Disease-modifying therapy, relapse treatment, rehabilitation, symptom management, and monitoring for multiple sclerosis.
- Arterial Spin Labeling MRI
A noninvasive MRI perfusion method that labels arterial blood magnetically.
- Causes & Genetics
What is known about the causes, familial patterns, RNF213, and associated conditions in moyamoya.
- Cerebral Hyperperfusion Syndrome
A postoperative state in which regional blood flow rises beyond the tissue’s ability to regulate it.
- Cerebrovascular Reserve
The capacity of cerebral vessels to increase blood flow when demand rises or pressure changes.
- Combined Revascularization
An operation that combines direct bypass with one or more indirect revascularization techniques.
- Diagnosis & Imaging
How MRI, MRA, angiography, perfusion testing, and diagnostic criteria are used in moyamoya.
- Digital Subtraction Angiography
An invasive catheter angiographic technique that produces high-detail images of blood vessels and blood flow.
- Direct Revascularization
Microsurgical bypass that immediately connects an extracranial donor artery to a cerebral recipient artery.
- EDAS
Encephaloduroarteriosynangiosis, an indirect revascularization procedure using a scalp artery.
- EMS and EDAMS
Indirect revascularization techniques using temporalis muscle, with or without a scalp artery and dura.
- Indirect Revascularization
Procedures that place vascularized tissue near the brain so new collateral vessels can develop.
- Intracranial Hemorrhage
Bleeding within the skull, including the brain tissue, ventricles, or other intracranial spaces.
- Ischemic Stroke
Brain injury caused by inadequate blood flow and oxygen.
- Living With Moyamoya
Practical topics to discuss with a care team when living with moyamoya disease.
- Moyamoya Disease
A plain-English and clinical overview of moyamoya disease, diagnosis, risks, and treatment.
- Moyamoya Syndrome
Moyamoya-pattern vasculopathy associated with another medical condition or exposure.
- MRA
Noninvasive magnetic resonance angiography of cerebral arteries.
- Multiple Burr Holes
An indirect revascularization technique using several small skull openings.
- PET
Positron emission tomography for quantitative cerebral hemodynamic assessment.
- Pial Synangiosis
An indirect technique that places a scalp artery directly against the pial surface.
- Puff-of-Smoke Appearance
The angiographic collateral appearance that gave moyamoya disease its name.
- Recovery & Follow-up
What follow-up commonly monitors before and after moyamoya revascularization surgery.
- RNF213
A susceptibility gene associated with moyamoya disease in some populations.
- SPECT
Nuclear medicine perfusion imaging used to assess cerebral blood flow and reserve.
- STA–MCA Bypass
A direct bypass connecting the superficial temporal artery to a middle cerebral artery branch.
- Surgical Procedures
Direct, indirect, and combined cerebral revascularization procedures used for moyamoya.
- Suzuki Staging
An angiographic description of how moyamoya collateral patterns evolve.
- Symptoms
Symptoms and emergency warning signs associated with moyamoya disease in children and adults.
- Transient Ischemic Attack
Temporary focal neurologic symptoms caused by inadequate blood flow without established infarction.
- Treatment
An overview of medical management, surgical decision-making, and multidisciplinary care for moyamoya.